Ethical Issues for School Counselors

The Ethical Issues for School Counselors Ethical issues arise more often for school counselors than for those who work in other settings. The challenge of working not only with minors but also with other stakeholders including parents, teachers, school administrators, and community members sets the stage for potential legal and ethical dilemmas. Awareness and adherence to ethical codes, therefore, is critical if school counselors are to make appropriate, ethical decisions. This article enhances school counselors' knowledge of ethical codes by using actual cases as submitted by school counselors.The issues are presented in a quiz format for further discussion and relate each scenario to particular ethical codes. The school counselor's primary obligation is to the student. This includes advocating for students, defining the role of the counselor, and adjusting work assignments so student’s needs are met. Regular meetings between school counselors and school principals have been touted as effective catalysts towards redirecting assignments that are counterproductive to student needs. It seems apparent that school counselors need viable methods to educate themselves about ethical conduct as well as to educate other stakeholders.Realistic scenarios are often difficult to encounter and might assist in the aforementioned tasks. This article was written to aid school counselors as they seek solutions to ethical dilemmas as well as to provide a nonthreatening format in which to enlighten principals and parents about appropriate responses. This article utilized the American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics (2005) and American School Counselors' Association (ASCA) Ethical Standards for School Counselors (2004) to arrive at answers at the ensuring discussions.While conclusive answers follow scenarios in the cases, the quiz was written to offer an opportunity to evaluate knowledge of current ACA and ASCA codes of ethics and facilitate discussions concernin g other appropriate alternatives. Answers were provided to help school counselors take a proactive rather than reactive stance when similar events occur. The ethical issues described in the article were submitted anonymously by school counselors practicing in the panhandle of Texas. These cases were not solicited; rather, counselors sent them to counselor educators at a local university so they might receive consultation.It is hoped this examination aids school counselors in the creation of proactive future plans when faced with ethical situations. Because no written quiz can offer indisputable answers, additional strategies are need to overcome difficult ethical dilemmas. The quiz can aid counselor educators as they strive to deepen ethical discussions in school counseling courses. As stated in class each person has the right to receive the information and support needed to move toward self-direction and self-development.Each person has the right to understand the full magnitude an d meaning of his/her educational choices and how those choices will affect future opportunities. Special care should be given to students who have historically not received adequate educational services: students of color, low socio-economic students, students with disabilities and student with non-dominant language backgrounds. The Standard G. Maintenance of Standards states that, professional school counselors are obligated to take appropriate action when they see the standards are not being followed.That being said, counselors must have knowledge of codes of ethics as well as local, state, and federal laws; school policies; seek consultation; and stay informed of changes in order to make ethical decisions. Being fully informed helps school counselors be prepared in situations that demand careful judgment and protect the welfare of the children within the school. This quiz and the strategies mentioned previously can be a useful tool in achieving this goal. Reference Froeschle, J. F. Crews, C. C. (2010). An ethics challenge for school counselors. EbscoHosthttp://www. ebsohost. com

Freedom of speech from the perspective of mass media, to what extend it has been practiced in Malaysia? Essay

Mass media are means of communications (as newspapers, radio, or television) that is designed to reach the mass of the people1. Besides playing the role to inform individual with news, the media together with a sound legal system and an independent judiciary is part of a triumvirate that is essential for a well-functioning democracy2. In a democratic system of government, mass media is performing a number of essential functions. First, they serve on information or surveillance function. Second, they serve an agenda-setting and interpretation function. Third, they help us to create and maintain connections with various groups in society. Fourth, they help us to socialize and to educate us. Fifth, they persuade us to buy certain items or accept certain ideas. Sixth, they entertain us. Freedom is the power or right to act, speak or think freely. We are now living a media culture and its influence is become very pervasive. The number of hours we spend on the media is mind-boggling. Although the freedom of the media should not be in toto, yet the degree of the freedom of the media will affect the function of the media. Citizens of countries that are democratic see media freedom as a right, not a privilege. Nevertheless, there is no mention of freedom of the press or freedom of the electronic media in our Constitution. However, freedom of media to exercise its role and functions in society has been enshrined as a fundamental human right by way of recognition for the right to freedom of speech, expression and opinion.3 Pre-independence In 1930-1940, there are nearly 80 newspaper and magazines published in the Malay State, such as Utusan Melayu, Saudara, Warta Malaya and Majlis. In Warta Malaya, it published article that talk about the social and economic problems faced by the Malay. However, it did not ask for the British to be chased out. The newspaper, Majlis, discussed the political issues. Majlis not only brings to the awakening and fights for Malays right, their office became the place for the nationalist to meet up and exchange their thoughts. In the newspapers Saudara, there was a column named ‘Persaudaraan Sahabat Pena’ where the Malay readers exchanged their point of view. British was worried on the development of this column and therefore took the step to overseen those who involved in the said column. In view of the number of publications that existed during the time and the situation whereby those newspapers are free to discussed any issues, and the fact that the newspapers has played a vital role in the movement towards independence, we can conclude that under the administration of British, the media was enjoying the freedom of speech. The law on the freedom of speech became clearer during the time prior to independence. Certain law has been introduced to the Malay State. One of the laws which governed the freedom of speech at that time was the Sedition Act 1948. Section 4 of the Act makes it an offence to make, prepare, or to conspire, to do a seditions act, to utter seditious words, and to propagate or import any seditious publications. Section 3 provides that a seditious tendency is one which tends to (a) bring hatred or contempt to the government or excite disaffection against any Ruler or government, (b) excite the countrymen to revolt, (c) bring into hatred or contempt or excites disaffection against administration of justice, (d) raise discontent or disaffection among the countrymen, or (e) promote feelings of ill-will and hostility amongst the inhabitants of the country. Besides, there were two ordinances specifically deal with the printed media at that time, i.e. Printing Press Act 1948 (Ord 12 of 1948) and Control of Imported Publications Act 1958 (Ord 14 of 1955). The former deal with the publisher in the Malay State while the later governing the printed material from other country. Those laws were limiting freedom of speech of the media at the British colonial the light of the freedom of speech only shine at the colonial since 1956, when an attempt to draft a Federal Constitution started. The recommendations were submitted by Reid Commission in 1956-1957 Reports. In the report, there were two paragraphs provides under the title ‘Fundamental Rights’ 161. A Federal Constitution defines and guarantees the right of the Federation and the states; it is usual and in our opinion right that it should also define and guarantee certain fundamental individual right which are generally regarded as essential conditions for a free and democratic way of life. The rights which are recommend should be defined and guaranteed are all firmly established now throughout Malaysia and it may seen unnecessary to give them special protection in the Constitution. But we found in certain quarters vague apprehension about the future. We believe such apprehensions to be unfound, but there can be no objection to guaranteeing these rights subject to limited exceptions in conditions of emergency and we recommend that this should be done†¦.. 162. our recommendations afford means of redress, readily available to any individual, against unlawful infringements of personal liberty in any of its aspects†¦ we further recommend (Art 10) that freedom of speech and expression should be guaranteed to all citizens subject to restrictions in the interest of security, public order or morality or in relation to incitement, defamation or contempt of court†¦ For the Malaysian citizen, the objectives of those who framed the Federal Constitution were but little affected by the epidemic of human rights in the Western world4. It has been observed that the commission’s recommendation on the freedom of speech has been vague, particularly on the importance of the rights. The commission only devoted two paragraphs. The reason why it was so was clear in the paragraph itself. The draft Article 10 in our Constitution was as follow: 10 (1) every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, subject to any reasonable restriction imposed by federal law in the interest of the security of the Federation, friendly relations with other countries, public order, or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to any offence. Mr. Justice Abdul Hamid on his note of dissent stated that â€Å"the word ‘reasonable’ wherever it occurs before the word ‘restrictions’ in the three sub-clauses of Article 10 should be omitted. Right to freedom of speech, assembly, and association has been guaranteed subject to restrictions which may be imposed in the interest of security of the country, public order and morality. If the Legislature imposes any restrictions in the interest of the aforesaid matters, considering those restrictions to be reasonable, that legislation should not be challengeable in a court of law on the ground that the restrictions are not reasonable. The Legislature alone should be the judge of what is reasonable under the circumstances. If the word ‘reasonable’ is allowed to stand, every legislation on this subject will be challengeable in court on the ground that the restrictions imposed by the legislature are not reasonable. This will in many cases give rise to conflict between the views of Legislature and the views of the court on the reasonableness of the restrictions. To avoid a situation like that it is better to make the Legislature the judge of the reasonableness of the restrictions. If this is not done the legislatures of the country will not be sure of the state of the law which they will enact. There will always be fear that the court may hold the restrictions imposed by it to be unreasonable. The laws would be lacking in certainty.† Later, when the Constitution comes into force, the Article 10 provides that: (1) subject to clause (2): (a) Every citizen has the right to freedom of speech and expression; (2) Parliament may by law impose: –   (a) on the rights conferred by paragraph (a) of clause (1), such restrictions as it deems necessary or expedient in the interest of the security of the Federation, friendly relations with other countries, public order or morality and restrictions designed to protect the privileges of Parliament or of any legislative Assembly or to provide against contempt of courts, defamation, or incitement to any offence; There are one case regarding to press reported prior to independence i.e. Public Prosecutor v. The Straits Times Press Ltd5 In this case, upon the application of the Public Prosecutor, the Respondents, who are the proprietors of the Straits Times Press Ltd, were alleged contempt in publishing a report of the trial of Tan Seng Ann of the Straits Times dated 5 August 1948. The report appeared which, it is now admitted, was misleading and inaccurate in that it gave the impression, contrary to the facts, that the first step in the proceedings in that case was a voluntary confession by Tan Seng Ann that he was in possession of a fire-arm and that his arrest was made solely as the result of such voluntary confession in the issue. The Notice of Motion having set out the terms of the letter complained of went on to allege inter alia that the criminal case referred to in the letter was sub judice when the letter was published in that an appeal was pending; that the terms of the letter did not constitute a fair or accurate account of the trial nor fair comment thereon; and that its publication tended to prejudice the fair disposal of the proceedings and tended to bring into contempt the administration of justice by that Court. Spenser-Wilkinson J held that: â€Å"†¦I would hesitate to follow too closely the decisions of English Courts on this subject without first considering whether the relevant conditions in England and this country are at all similar. Quite apart from the present emergency in this country, I do not think it could be suggested that the development of the Press, the general standard of education or the composition of the general public in the two countries are at all comparable and it may, therefore, be necessary to take a stricter view here of matters which pertain to the dignity of the Courts and the impartial administration of justice than would be taken at the present time in England.† Newly Independence (1957-1980) At this period, Art 10 Federal Constitution has been amended twice. The first amendment was on 19636 where the words ‘Clause (2) and (3)’ had been substituted for the words ‘clause (2)’ of clause (1) with effect from 16 September 1963.and the words ‘or any part thereof’ were added to the Art10(2)(a). Further, clause (3) which provides that: â€Å"Restrictions on the right to form a associations conferred by paragraph (c) of clause (1) may also be imposed by any law relating to labour or education.† The second amendment was made on 19717 after considering the trouble of May 1969. This time, Clause (4) was added with effect from 10 March 1971. Article 10(4) provides that Parliament may pass laws prohibiting the questioning of four sensitive matters: right to citizenship under Part III of the Constitution; status of the Malay language; position and privileges of the Malays and the native of Sabah and Sarawak; and prerogatives of the Malay Sultans and the Ruling Chiefs of Negeri Sembilan. The constitutional changes enable Parliament to amend the Sedition Act of 1948 in order to add a new definition of ‘seditious tendency’8. The amended sections were: Section 3 (1) A seditious tendency is a tendency (f) To question any matter, right, status, position, privilege, sovereignty or prerogative established or protected by the provisions of Part III of the Federal Constitution or Article 152, 153 or 181 of the Federal Constitution Section 2 â€Å"seditious† when applied to or used in respect of any act, speech, words, publication or other thing qualifies the act, speech, words, publication or other thing as one having a seditious tendency; Official Secrets Act 1972 is a new law that be introduced at that time. This is the most important statute on government secrecy. The gist of the law is that ‘official secrets’ cannot be received, retained, released or used without prior authorization.9 The Act is drafted in the widest possible terms and is not limited in its operation to spies, saboteurs, traitors and mercenaries. The term ‘official secret’ is not defined in the Act. The courts have given the term the broadest possible definition, and on the generally accepted construction any communication pertaining to the Executive would constitute an offence.10 The right to free speech can be further eclipsed by the special provisions of Art 149 and 150 relating to subversion and emergency. Art 149 authorises legislative action designed to stop or prevent subversion, organized violence and crimes prejudicial to the public. Art 150 permits any legislative action required by reason of emergency. The grounds enumerated above permitting curtailment of free speech are so broad and comprehensive that in 49 years no Act of parliament even been found by the courts to have violated the Constitution. Besides printed media, television was introduced in Malaysia in 1963. The television was under the control of the Department of Broadcasting (RTM). What is apparent is that television and more generally broadcasting in Malaysia was form its inception closely aligned to the government. Both the RTM channel were established via decisions made by the then Alliance coalition government. Because of the circumstances at that time, there was no any specifics rule to govern the broadcasting. One of the cases that being heard at that time was Melan bin Abdullah v Public Prosecutor.11 The fact of the case was that On 6 April 1971 the Utusan Melaya newspaper published a report of a talk given by given by Inche Musa Hitam, a prominent Malay leader and member of Parliament, at the National Education Congress held in the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.. In the report was an editorial sub-heading, which in the English translation reads: â€Å"Abolish Tamil or Chinese medium schools in this country.† The first appellant was the editor-in-chief of the Utusan Melayu, and the second appellant the author of the sub-heading inserted in the report. Sanction for their prosecution was given under s 5(1) of the Sedition Act 1948, and they were tried in due course in the special sessions court on a charge of publishing a seditious publication in contravention of s 4(1)(C) of the Sedition Act, punishable under the same section. The learned special president held the publication to be seditious, that the first appellant â€Å"was responsible for all publication in the Utusan Melayu†, that the second appellant was the author of the impugned subheading, and that consequently they were both guilty. They were convicted and fined the sum of $500 and $1,000 respectively, in default one month and two months’ imprisonment, both appellant appealed. CJ Ong, on hearing of the appeal accepted the first appellant evidence that he had organised seminars and discussions, relating in particular to the â€Å"sensitive issues† and had instructed his staff on the relevant law as he understood it. He had sponsored a talk to journalists given on this subject in February 1971 by the Attorney General as well as the Solicitor-General. Therefore, the first respondent appeal was allowed. But the court dismissed the second respondent appeal. Another case is Public Prosecutor v Straits Times (Malaya) Bhd.12 The Public Prosecutor applied in this case for leave to issue a writ or writs of attachment for contempt of court on the respondents for publication of articles in The Straits Times. The grounds upon which relief was sought was that â€Å"the publications of the said articles contain matters which are tendentious and constitute contempt of court, because they are prejudicing and embarrassing the applicant in the exercise of his statutory functions and also prejudicing a fair trial concerning the circumstances of the death of one Robert Lee.† Abdul Hamid J held that: ‘I do not think that it is reasonable to construe these words as having any special meaning. There is no dispute that the reports do reveal that there had been an assault, a commotion and firing of a shot and that allegedly, a police officer was involved. But these facts are not challenged. As regards the previous episode encountered by Robert Lee there is nothing to show that this was not true. Further it is not uncommon for newspapers to publish matters concerning scholastic achievement of and other good deeds rendered by a person on his death particularly if the dead person enjoys a certain standing in the community or he is in one way or another related to any prominent personality. For that reason it is unreasonable to isolate certain passages from the reports and construe them unfavourably or to impute improper motive on the publisher. What may appear to be an embarrassment or prejudicial if that part is read in isolation may not be so if the reports are read as a whole taking into account the circumstances surrounding such publication particularly if it relates to a matter which will promote public sensation or a matter of unusual occurrence.† The application was therefore dismissed. Malaysia under Tun Dr. Mahathir (1981-2002) Over this period, more laws are introduced and come into force to govern the media. In 1984, Printing Presses and Publications Act came into force on the 1st of September 1984 as a consolidating Act, and in turn repealed the Printing Presses Act 1948 and the Control of Imported Publications Act 1958. The Act is designed ‘to regulate the use of printing, presses and the printing, importation, production, reproduction, publishing and distribution of publications and for matters connected there with’. Through such control, the government uses it power to determine what it is the public has a right to know, or exactly what form freedom of speech should take13. This is an Act designed clearly to ensure that the press does not get out of line, imposes both a system of licensing and censorship14. Section 3 of the Act makes it mandatory to obtain a license to own a printing press. The Minister has absolute discretion on giving, refusing, and revoking a license15. Further, judicial review of the Minister’s discretion is not allowed16 and the Minister is not required to give the parties a prior hearing17. The period of the license is 12 months or shorter period as minister specifies18. This means that all publishers in this country must suffer the pangs of uncertainty about whether their permit will be renewed for the following year. There is less control of what may be written in foreign publications, controls have been exercised through deliberate delay in distribution and sometimes outright ban on their sale where officials deemed reports to be offensive or inaccurate19. In 1988, another law governing the media came into force on 1st August i.e. The Broadcasting Act 1988. The preamble to the Act states: ‘An act to provide for the control of broadcasting services and for matters connected therewith’. The Act is both stringent and inflexible. It bestows enormous powers on the government to determine the type of television made available to the Malaysian public. In the midst of the supposed ‘deregulation’ of broadcasting, the Act now gives the Minister of Information virtually total powers to determine who will and who will not broadcast and the nature of the broadcast material. Under the Act, any potential broadcaster would need to apply for a licence from the minister beforehand. Later, the Act was amended on October 1996. By the amendment, this already-stringent piece of legislation were aimed at taking into account the introduction of new services, such as cable and satellite television, satellite radio, pay TV and video-on demand. Due to the drastic development in the electronic media, the Legislature has to repeal the old Telecommunication Act 1950 and the Broadcasting Act 1988 and introduced a new law which is the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998. The Act’s breakthrough was to bring together the previously disparate industries of broadcasting, telecommunications and internet services combined under legislation and more importantly, one regulator the Communications and Multimedia commission.20 The Communication and Multimedia Act brings to the creation of Communication and Multimedia Commission Act 1998. the Communication and Multimedia Commission performing several functions including advising the Minister all matters concerning the national policy objectives for communication and multimedia activities and implementing and enforcing the provisions of the communications and multimedia law. Interestingly, Information Malaysia 1980-81 and Information Malaysia 1985 revealed that between 1981 and 1985 alone, the number of titles of local newspapers, magazines, and journals in circulation increased from 56 to 10221. However, the increase in number cannot be the proof supporting the allegation that during that time, the media was enjoying freedom of speech. There are some facts that we should not forget. In 1987, during the Operasi Lalang, a number of newspapers were closed by the government22. Later, Harakah being categorizes as publications of political parties meant for party members and there is law forbids the publication being openly sold to the public. Besides, Barisan Nasional owned and controlled major Malaysian media organization. Further, prior to Dato Seri Anwar’s sacking, expulsion, and detention, the editor of Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian, and the director of operations of TV3 were forced to resign because they were allied to Anwar. In 1990, there was a case of Aliran Kesedaran23 In this case, the respondents had applied for a permit under s 6(1) of the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 to print and publish in Bahasa Malaysia a magazine under the name and style of Seruan Aliran. The application was refused by the Minister of Home Affairs. The respondents applied for an order of certiorari to remove into the High Court for the purpose of quashing the decision of the Minister and for an order of mandamus directing the Minister to hear and determine the application for the permit according to law. The High Court made an order quashing the decision of the Minister and ordered that the Minister shall hear and determine according to law the application for the permit. The appellant appealed. The court allowing the appeal and held that; ‘Section 12(2) of the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 gives the Minister of Home Affairs ‘absolute discretion to refuse an application for a license or permit’. So unless it can be clearly established that the Minister for Home Affairs had in any way exercised his discretion wrongfully, unfairly, dishonestly or in bad faith, the High Court cannot question the discretion of the Minister.† One of the significant cases during this period was the case of Irene Fernandez. The facts were that in 1995, Tenaganita released a report documenting beatings, sexual violence against detainees by prison guards, and inadequate food and water in Malaysia’s immigration detention camp. Irene Fernandez was arrested and charged with malicious publication of false news under the Printing Presses and Publications Act. Magistrate Juliana Mohamed found Irene guilty and was sentence to one year imprison. Current Situation (2003-2006) Between these periods of time, there is no any new law designed to control the media. However, recently, Government has released the Media Council Bill (2006) which seeks to ameliorate some of the worst excess of the Printing Presses and Publications Act in regard to the local media. On page 4 of the Bill, it was stated: â€Å"An Act to establish the Malaysian Press Council for the purpose of preserving, promoting and protecting the freedom of the Press, of maintaining and improving the ethical and professional journalistic standards of newspapers, press publications and news/press agencies in Malaysia.† Nevertheless, there is fear in public that this piece of legislation will create another unnecessary public body with wide powers to curb press freedom despite its apparent duty to uphold that right. It might also act as a censorship board, only dealing with complaints against the press organisations and journalists and not against denial of freedom of expression by other entities such as ministers or organisations whose actions effectively suppress the right of freedom of expression. Besides, bear in mind that all the laws governing the media before this are still firmly in place and the main stream media also continue to be owned by interests directly or indirectly tied to the main component parties of the BN, especially UMNO and MCA. Some incidents happened during this time of period, showing to us that despite of the changes of the head of the Government, the media are not freer compared to the years before. The government shut down the Sarawak tribune for the editors made a mistake of reprinting caricatures of Prophet Muhammad following Muslim protests of a Danish paper that first published them. Another incident was that the Minister of Information, Datuk Zainuddin had sought the sacking of top NST editor at a meeting of UMNO’s information bureau because he was unhappy with the way the NST had played up certain issues such as the religious rights of minorities and the government’s policy on bumiputras.24 The government also delays in reviewing the publishing permit of the Oriental Daily and censor certain news that the government were not comfortable with. Moreover, the debate on Ninth Malaysia Plan was given wide publicity in the media, but it was the official view and rationale for the Plan that enjoyed one-sided coverage. The leader of the opposition who spoke foe six hours on the Plan did not get any substantive coverage.25 Another issue was that Tun Dr. Mahathir had called a press conference to express his deep disappointment after Datuk Seri Abdullah dismissed the ‘crooked bridge’ project. However, the mainstream media hardly covered it. Conclusions The freedom of the media has seen become more restrictive from the time prior to independence until now. At the early day, the British Colonial has a freer media compare to the media after independence. This might be because of the British regarded the individual freedom as up most important. When came to the early day after independence, the laws being designed were more restricted. However, this was understandable as the situation at that time, where Malaysia was in an Emergency. Unmindful speech might cause riot to the nation. Therefore, the government had to take step to prevent this. In 1970-1985, there was more cases on freedom of speech, after the stand of the courts are clear in these issues, there was lesser cases. During the time frame from 1981 to 2002, many laws were designed and many existing laws were amended. Tun Dr. Mahathir tried to justify this by saying that: ‘the truth is that there is no absolute press freedom anywhere in the world, be it in a liberal democratic country or in countries governed by dictators.†26 He further claimed that journalists and foreigners read a few newspapers which support the government and immediately concluded that there is no press freedom in Malaysia. This was in conjunction with his view points that: â€Å"Malaysian newspapers are free. But this freedom does not mean freedom to criticize the government alone. It also means freedom to support the government.†27 Further in Tun Dr. Mahathir speech at the national union of Journalists dinner on 15th June 1990, he stated that: ‘According to an old English proverb, power corrupt and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely. If there are restrictions on press freedom, especially pertaining to reports on violence, sex and obscenity, then they are imposed because no one should be given absolute power. This is to prevent the possibility of ‘absolute corruption’. This constraint no way suggests there is no press freedom in Malaysia. Government leaders in this country have no absolute power. The people can change the government while the courts can reverse government decisions. Therefore, newspapers in Malaysia must accept these restrictions. This is done in the national interest and not aimed at destroying press freedom†. It is true that freedom of the media has to be limited but over limiting will only result to a closed society. Looking at the current situation, many are thinking that the new government would promote media freedom in view of the government transparency policy. However, one should bear in mind that since Datuk Seri Abdullah took over the government until today, it was only three years passed. It is unfair to judge him at this moment. Whether or not there is free media under Datuk Seri Abdullah, we shall wait and see. Comparing to our nearest neighbor, Singapore, media in Malaysia enjoy more freedom. Singapore as a police state, the press is mobilized to explain and support the policies of the Singapore government, as an aid to development rather than assuming a counter-checking posture. In Chee Siok Chin case28, the Singapore court held that: â€Å"it bears emphasis that the phrase ‘necessary or expedient’ confers on Parliament an extremely wide discretionary power and remit that permits a multifarious and multifaceted approach towards achieving any of the purposes specified in Art 14(2) of the constitution. In contrast to the Indian Constitution, there can be no questioning of whether the Legislations are ‘reasonable’. The court’s sole task, when a constitutional challenge is advanced, is to ascertain whether an impugned law is within the purview of any of the permissible restrictions.† As for electronic media, the media Corporation of Singapore, an evolution from a series of government owned broadcast Corporations, dominances the broadcasting media. The PAP government guards the broadcast turf with rigour, grudgingly allowing foreigner broadcasters to operate for commercial and public relations reasons but legislating them off local politics. Today, Malaysian society has an economic level of existence which provides for basic needs, health facilities, adequate housing and equal opportunities to education. Therefore, there is no reason why freedom of speech and free media should be restricted. Values of freedom of expression, exposure to critical thinking and the importance of a civil society should be emphasizes. After 49 years of independence, Malaysian should not only concern with earning a livelihood and basic quality of life issues. Society shall have desire to acquire knowledge especially in social concerns such as freedom of speech. Bibliography: 1. â€Å"A Case of the Media Freedom: Report of the SUHAKAM†, Workshop on Freedom of the Media at Kuala Lumpur, Aug. 1, 2002. (Kuala Lumpur: Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia Malaysia, 2003). 2. Abdul Aziz Bari, ‘Freedom of Speech and Expression in Malaysia After Forty Years’, (1998) 27.3 INSAF 149-161. 3. Abraham, C.E.R., â€Å"Freedom of Speech for Whom? The Malaysian Case†, (1998) 27.3 INSAF 1-8. 4. Asian Human Rights Commission, homepage, 10 Sept. 2006 5. Asian Human Rights Commission, homepage, 10 Sept. 2006 6. Broadcasting Act 1988 (Act 338). 7. Centre for Independent Journalism, 10 Sept. 2006 8. Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 (Act 588). 9. Communication and Multimedia Commission Act 1998. (Act 599). 10. Constitution (Amendment) Act 1971 (Act A30). 11. Control of Imported Publications Act 1958 (Ord 14 of 1955) 12. Cyrus V. Das, â€Å"Press Freedom & Contempt of Court†, (1986) 19.3 INSAF 61. 13. Faruqi, Shad Saleem, â€Å"Access to Information†, [1993] 4 Malaysia Current Law Journal xxiii. 14. —, â€Å"Curbing Excesses of Free Speech†, Sunday Star, 10 Feb, 2002, Focus. 15. —, â€Å"Cyber Challenge to Freedom of Speech†, Sunday Star, 27 Jan, 2002, Focus. 16. —,†Keeping A Tight Lid on Official Secrets†, Sunday Star, 17 Feb, 2002, Focus. 17. —, â€Å"Life-blood of Free Society†, Sunday Star, 20 Jan, 2002, Focus. 18. —, â€Å"Pifalls for the Unwary Media†, Sunday Star, 3 March, 2002, Focus. 19. —, â€Å"Principles That Govern Free Speech†, Sunday Star, 3 Feb, 2002, Focus. 20. Federal Constitution. 21. â€Å"Freedom of the Press? A Quick Look At the Borneo Mail Affair and the Question: How Free Is the Local Press?†. 1994 (June) Malaysian Law News, 36-37. 22. Hashim Makaruddin, ed., Ensiklopedia Dr. Mahathir Bin Mohamed: Perdana Menteri Malaysia, (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Masri, 2005). 23. Hickling, R.H., Hickling’s Malaysian Public Law, (Petalng Jaya: Longman, 2003). 24. â€Å"I Know How The People Feel†, (1986) 19.4 INSAF 18. 25. Kanesalingam, A., â€Å"Democracy and the Law†, (1998) 27.4 INSAF 105-115. 26. Mahathir Mohamed, â€Å"Freedom of the Press: Malaysian Perspective†, 1990 (Aug) Malaysian Law News, 521-522. 27. Malaysia Act 1963 (No.26/63). 28. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 3 Sept. 2006 29. Mohamad Ariff Yusuf, â€Å"Freedom of the Press in Malaysia†, 10th Law Asia Conference, (Kuala Lumpur, June 21 – July 4, 1987). 30. Mustafa K. Anuar, Anil Netto, â€Å"Malaysian Ready for Press Freedom†, 5 Sept. 2006, 31. —, Joint Coordination, Charter 2000, Aliran Online, 6 Sept. 2006 32. Officials Secrets Act 1972 (Act 88) 33. Officials Secrets (Amendment) Act 1983 34. Officials Secrets (Amendment) Act 1986 35. Padmanabha Rau, â€Å"Federal Constitutional Law in Malaysia & Singapore†, 2nd ed., (Singapore: Butterworths Asia, 1997). 36. â€Å"Press Council Bill A Farce†, Aliran Online, 5 Sept. 2006 37. Printing Press Act 1948 (Ord 12 of 1948) 38. Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 (Act301). 39. Printing Presses and Publications (Amendment) Act 1987 (Act684) 40. Reme Ahmad, â€Å"Malaysia Former Media Bosses Duel Over Press Issues†, Asia Media News 22 Feb. 2006, 9 Sept. 2006 41. Ruslan Zainuddin, Fauziah Soffie, â€Å"Sejarah Malaysia† (Selangor: Penerbit Fajar Bakti, 2001). 42. .Salleh Buang, â€Å"The Broadcasting Act 1988†, 1994 (April) Malaysian Law News, 5&14. 43. Shafruddin Hashim, â€Å"The Constitution and the Federal Idea in Peninsular Malaysia†, (1984) Journal of Malaysia and Comparative Law, 139-178. 44. Sheridan, L.A. & Groves, Harry E., â€Å"The Constitution of Malaysia†, 5th ed., (Singapore: Malaysian Law Journal, 2004). 45. Sedition Act 1948 (Revised – 1969) (Act 15). 46. Sopiee, Mohamed Nordin, â€Å"Freedom of the Press†, 10th Law Asia Conference, (Kuala Lumpur: June 29 – July 4, 1987). 47. Tan, Kevin & Thio Li-Ann, â€Å"Constitutional Law in Malaysia & Singapore†, 2nd ed., (Singapore: Butterworths Asia, 1997). 48. â€Å"The Officials Secrets (Amendment) Bill 1986: Why Are They Taking Away Our Rights?† 1986, 19.4 INSAF 1. 49. Tun Mohamed Suffian, ed., â€Å"The Constitution of Malaysia: Its Development: 1957-1977†, (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978). 50. Wong, Kok Keong, â€Å"Propagandists for the BN (Part 1)†, 2004 Vol. 24 No. 5 Aliran Monthly, 14-17. 51. —, â€Å"Propagandists for the BN (Part 2)†, 2004 Vol. 24 No. 6 Aliran Monthly, 13-17. 52. —, â€Å"Freer Media Under PM Abdullah?†, Aliran Online 3 Sept. 2006 53. Zaharom Naim, Mustafa K Anuar, â€Å"Ownership and Control of the Malaysia Media†, World Association for Christian Communication, homepage, 10 Sept. 2006 54. Zalina Abdul Halim, â€Å"Media Law†, 2000 Survey of Malaysian Law, 411-439. 55. —, â€Å"The media System and Co-operative Regulatory Systems in the Media Sector of Malaysia†, Hans-Bredow-Institut, 2 Sept. 20 06

Following a Journalist

Robert J. Samuel persuasive style emphasizes his view on the economy and how it has its ups and downs. He uses literary devices such as rhetorical questions and diction to achieve effectiveness with his persuasive style of writing and to show his purpose of his articles, his purposes are to make the readers reading his article start to see how the current economic states of some nation are. Samuel has a persuasive style of writing; to show that he has persuasive style of writing he uses rhetorical questions. For instance, Samuel asks a question that already has the answer to it, â€Å"Can anyone doubt that the euro’s creation in 1999 was a huge blunder? † This question shows how Samuel style of writing persuades the reader to understand his point of view by presenting them with a question that has only one answer. This question is worded in a way where the only logical answer is that it is a â€Å"huge blunder†. Furthermore, Samuel asks another question that has the answer to it, â€Å"Wonder why government can’t restart the sluggish economy? The obvious answer is that the government can’t restart the sluggish economy because the economy is in such a bad spot the only thing to do is fix it. This shows the persuasive style of writing that Samuel is expressing because he’s trying to persuade his readers that the government is doing nothing to help the economy. Samuel also uses diction to express his persuasive style of writing. For example, Samuel uses the world â€Å"dreadful† to express his claim on how bad the Obamacare policy is. The word dreadful means great suffering or extremely bad, when using that word he sends his reader the message that contributing to the Obamacare policy will bring great suffering to many people. When using the word â€Å"dreadful† it persuades the readers who read Samuels articles to be against the Obamacare. In addition to how diction is used in Samuels’s persuasive style of writing, Samuel uses the word â€Å"poisoned† to show how corrupted the political climate is. The word poison means toxic substance or negative influence, using that word sends the readers a message that the political climate can poison their minds with negative influences and that it could harm them not physical but mentally. When using the word â€Å"poisoned† it persuades the readers who read Samuels’s articles to resent the political climate because it is â€Å"poisoned† and it will poison them if not avoided. Samuel emphasized his point of view and clearly defined it for the reader in a way that convinces them to believe it with his persuasive style of writing. His purpose to most of his articles is to make the readers start to see how the current economic states of some nation are and how some nations economy have their ups and downs. To show his purposes he uses literary devices such as rhetorical questions and diction to achieve effectiveness with his persuasive style of writing.

Aristocrats should help the poors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Aristocrats should help the poors - Essay Example I completely agree with this statement since the rich have enough money to survive any crises, in other words their money deposit and storage allows them to do this. But those people who depend greatly on their monthly salaries and wages lose everything with their jobs. They have no big deposits as well as no securities capital and that is why crisis struck the poor first of all. But the author focuses not on the poor but rather on the middle class since it is the main constituent of the successful economy. It is no way a secret that the world crisis started from the USA, where â€Å"the fat cats† (Herbert ) as the author calls them didn’t manage to cope with the mortgage sphere. Let’s remember the flourishing USA: a happy middle class with a quite high annual income that can afford having a house, a car, and several children and to be in easy circumstances. With the great rate of unemployment people have no money even for food, to say nothing of a car, and rent. As time approaches to Christmas the situation becomes even more unjust and obvious. â€Å"Even as millions of out-of-work and otherwise struggling Americans are tightening their belts for the holidays, the nations elite are lacing up their dancing shoes and partying like royalty as the millions and billions keep rolling in†. (Herbert, 2010 p.1 ). By saying this the author wanted to show that the middle class has to refuse something in order to cherish the tradition of gifts giving, while the rich of the country even are not ashamed of throwing parties and pretending to be more modest. The most offensive thing is that those in power and with money just ask the nation to stand the tough times. â€Å"So here we have the billionaire and the millionaire telling the poor and the struggling - the little people - that they will just have to make do with less.† (Herbert, 2010 p.1). It would be funny, if it wasn’t the real life. The nation can do without some things but it cannot do without the

Why and in what ways did the Oxford Movement make an impact on Essay

Why and in what ways did the Oxford Movement make an impact on religious life in England - Essay Example Their influences were felt in the spiritual and doctrinal levels.1 The Oxford movement brought to the forefront some of the problems within the Church of England. One of the major forces that caused the movement occurred in the year 1832 where there was the passage of the Reform Act. This Act required that ten Irish bishops be eliminated from the Church. One of the major participants of the movement was John Keble. He voiced his objections against that reform and even described it as a form of apostasy by the nation. He voiced these complaints in a Sermon at Oxford during the year 1833. The leaders of the Oxford movement felt that adherents to the Anglican faith were not as devoted as they should be to the church and the clergy. Standards of worship had declined and something needed to be done in order to change this. They also felt that tradition no longer formed a central part of worship and there was a need to return to that. The movement protested against involvement of the government in matters of the Church. This was highlighted in the famous sermon of 1833. Newman asserted that the church was a holy institution and as such should be left to run its own affairs without interruptions from external bodies. He also spoke against the way the government had ruined the apostolic succession principle which required that bishops should be succeeded in a religious and not a political manner.2 Leaders of the movement were also instrumental in making the people of England realise that there were certain linkages between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church. These beliefs caused the formulation of the Branch Theory in which The Orthodox, Anglicans and Roman Catholics were termed as branches of the real Catholic Church. These movement’s leaders compared some elements of the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church to prove the latter fact. They asserted that the 39 articles of their church and the Council of Trent were one

Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Obesity - Essay Example It has estimated that in the United States of America two third of the population has either increased weight or is suffering from obesity. Furthermore, it has been classified that one third of the population belonging to the age group of above twenty years is suffering from obesity (Weight Control Information Network 2010). There are many underlying factors that have been leading to this problem. Increased consumption of fats and reduced burning of calories through exercise has resulted in obesity. Reduction in physical activities by children leads to increase in obesity amongst the young generation. The advancement of technology has made the person more reliable on machines for all their works and has resulted in reduction of physical activities. Video games and other forms of entertainment has made people more restricted to indoors and has led to decrease in outdoor activities and games and hence resulted in aggravating the problem of obesity (Biddle et al 2009). The epidemic of o besity needs to be tacked with different measures. Physical activity needs to be promoted and awareness should be created amongst the people regarding the problems that may result due to this condition. Children should be trained in schools and sports activities should be encouraged amongst them. The media should also play a role by promotion of activities and measures that can reduce this issue (Boyse 2008, Biddle et al 2009).

The Andragogy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Andragogy - Research Paper Example One of the central principles which surround the teaching of adult learners is that of individual experience. â€Å"As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning† (Smith, 2011). Unlike children, adults have inevitably built up a wealth of personal experience which can be utilized in a way which can help to learn, such as relating new information to previous experience, recalling the previous experience, and/or using familiar examples to apply to learn to unfamiliar concepts. Though it has been disputed that a child’s experiences are of no less learning value than an adult, it cannot be argued that the adult has more experience to relate to. Whether or not this is enough to justify the concentration on experience regarding adult learners as opposed to child learners, remains in dispute (Glowaki-Dudka, 2011). Teaching strategies which build upon experiential learning will be an extension of everyday l ife (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005). Adult learners partake in a process which sees them reflect, draw an inference from and conceptualizes, based upon previous individual experience. As this wealth of experience is seen as the richest resource of information for the learner, it must be pointed out that individual experience is fundamentally biased and of an entirely subjective nature. This implies that new information may be interpreted in different ways, which can be advantageous as it allows for new ideas and opinions but can also have its disadvantages regarding personal bias. A second principle which Knowles determined to be of special significance to andragogy is that of the self-concept. Within the paradigm of learning, self-concept relates to the movement of an individual’s perception of themselves as a self-directed person rather than being dependent upon others.

Entamoeba histolytica Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Entamoeba histolytica - Essay Example This disease spreads rapidly in highly populated places that lack the basic facilities of sanitation and hygiene and is thus more common in the still developing or under developed countries. Classification of any organism depends on its external and internal characteristics and taxonomy is a branch that deals with this classification. Cellular organisms can be classified into two groups- the eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The eukaryotes again can be divided into four basic types or kingdoms. As Sleigh (1991) frames it â€Å"Animalia or multicellular animals (Parazoa, Mesozoa and Metazoa), Plantae or green land plants (Bryophyta and Tracheophyta), Fungi ..and Protista, comprising eukaryote groups formerly classed as algae, protozoa and flagellate fungi†( Sleigh, 1991). The sub kingdom protozoa are not much in use nowadays. Protozoan refers to heterotrophic, unicellular and microscopic protists that can perform functions similar to that of multicellular animals and E. histolytica falls under this protozoan sub kingdom. Like any other Protista its cellular membranes are made of lipoprotein. Its order is amoebida as like any other amoeba it possesses pseudopodia and a f ree flowing cytoplasm that can move into any form of cellular projections often carrying the contractile and food vacuole into the projections. This parasitic protozoan forms a part of the genus entamoeba. The species name of histolytica refers to its highly pathogenic nature, histo-lytic or that which causes destruction of cells and tissues. Thus its taxonomic classification can be outlined as: E.histolytica is a single celled anaerobic eukaryote. However under the electron microscope it is seen that it lacks many of the cellular organelles that are present in other eukaryotic organisms. They lack the golgi bodies, the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria and the microtubules. It was

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills Essay

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills - Essay Example There are different communication styles that can be used and these will be outlined in the paper. Characteristics of a good intercultural negotiator Cross culture communication and negotiation mainly involve people from different cultural backgrounds and this has a bearing on the way they communicate. The culture of different people shape the way people communicate and exchange ideas (Fujio, 2004). According to Armstrong (1994), culture in the organization refers to shared beliefs, values, attitudes as well as assumptions which shape their behaviour as well as the way they view different things around them. All the people in the organization have shared beliefs as well as values. Dbhaibo & Harb (2010) suggest that the way people communicate and behave is shaped by their cultural values. Hofstede’s framework of cultural diversity mainly influences different types of studies that are related to cross cultural communication and management which include the following four dimensi ons of national culture: â€Å"individualism versus collectivism, power distance which is concerned with how power is distributed, uncertainty avoidance which talks about how uncertainty is found to be uncomfortable, quality versus quantity of life† (Robbins, 1993, p. 75). In order for a person to be a good intercultural negotiator, there are many issues that should be considered by the people involved. In case of a distributive type of negotiation, a good intercultural negotiator attempts to discover the other person’s BATNA. The person who suggests a strong offer is likely to achieve positive results as a result of the fact that the other person is likely to concede certain instances (Thompson 2005). The use of statements or questions is also very important since it helps to establish the quality of the relationship that may exist between the two negotiators involved. Thus, a good intercultural negotiator should establish how the other person communicates as well as to try to establish the relationship that exists between parties involved. The other important factor that should be taken into account about what makes a good intercultural negotiator is to try to differentiate between Utilitarian Discourse System (UDS) which is about the message itself and the Confucian Discourse System (CDS) which is concerned about the quality of relationship that exist between the two people communicating with each other. For instance, the Americans prefer the UDS system when negotiating while the Japanese or Chinese prefer CDS. According to a study conducted by Misa Fujio (2004) entitled â€Å"Silence during intercultural communication: a case study,† it can be noted that styles of communication between the people involved in the communication process differ as a result of the fact that they have different cultures. Silence is used as a way of communication by the Japanese this is a different case with the Americans who do not use silence as part of the ir communication process. In order to avoid unnecessary frustration, a good intercultural negotiator must establish the way another person communicates so as to be able to exchange meaningful ideas. Lin & Miller (2003) suggest that negotiation approach is influenced by factors which include national culture, commitment as well as the quality of relationship that exist between the two. For example, the â€Å"Chinese emphasise on collectivism while the Americans focus on individualism (Hsu, 1985 as cited in Lin and Miller, 2003). A good

Research Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 4

Research Paper - Essay Example On the same note, there had been fuel crisis when the country was hit by floods. The fuel crisis grew up to the level that people had to stand for hours in cues to get the fuel. Long lines of vehicles were seen on the fuel sources and there were also some instances of insecurity and lawlessness at some places in USA. The fuel i.e. oil and gas is one of the essential needs of the public of USA and the shortage of the fuel made people restless and agitated. On the other hand, USA had been under the drought and almost half of the country was left with no water. The reason told by the authorities concerned were that in USA there had been hot and dry summer which resulted in the drought in half of the country. Another reason which has been given is the increase in the population and estimates have shown that population of the USA has increased 99% and the use of water has increased up to 127% which has given a blow to the use of water resulting in water shortage in USA (Parry 67). 2.0 Ana lysis of the Global Food Crisis Food crisis in the country leads to chaos and ultimately the political government has to face the music. The global food crisis has hit almost every country of the world and it has hit the most to USA. USA has been under the pin of the food crisis since last year and the hot summer and dry weathers have not let the crops grow with the same ratio as they had been growing earlier and a decrease in food production is calculate to be 6.5%. The United Nations has warned of the perceived threats which might grow up after the food shortage (Citrin 27). The UN is of the view that the food crisis particularly in USA is of dire importance as the UN funded projects in the developing countries can be halted in response of this crisis. According to Gurgel, UN estimates show that the supplies throughout the world are very tight and the consumption of the food and related products is much more than the storage (34).This situation is fast consuming the stocks of the food and products. In USA, the according to UN the situation has been worsening and had there been no solutions to this crisis this issue can erupt like a menace in the country where people will find difficult to eat (Smith n.pag). 3.0 Analysis of the Global Fuel Crisis According to Hurd , there has been fuel crisis in the world in the recent times and this fuel crisis spread all over the world with in no time. The fuel like petrol and gas are among the most used objects of the economy of the world. In USA, apparently there had not been any fuel crisis but the floods in the country let the country deprive of the oil supplies and people were left on their own in driving their vehicles. Other than that, there had been the history of fuel crisis in USA back in 1970 (48). According to Christensen, the oil crisis at that time was of political nature as the Middle Eastern and the oil producing countries had imposed an embargo on the supply of the fuel to USA due to the policies of USA whi ch were not acceptable to the Middle Eastern countries (34). According to David, the fuel crisis in such a big country can wreak havoc among the nation as majority of the public is direct under the usage of the fuel in USA (n.pag). 4.0 Analysis of the Global Water Crisis According to California Department of Water Resources, water is one of the basic necessities of the population of the world and if there is the chances of the drought, then the world should look into this matter with an open eye.

The role of social capital in the business start-up and Essay

The role of social capital in the business start-up and entrepreneurial development - Essay Example Capital, as stated by the economists, is a produced means of production. The expenditure incurred on capital in business is often termed as investment. This is because with the benefits of investments, an organization can generate economic surplus in future. The concept of social capital has gained importance in the contemporary business world. This concept was initially introduced by the sociologists and political scientists. In the current epoch, the concept of social capital withholds all those social relations that possess productive benefits within them. It is true that the success of growth or prosperity of an organization is derived with the help of easy access of financial or productive factor resources. However, goodwill and social relations are also important for determining factors that influence the success of a new business organization. The brand loyalty for a product can be developed by the consumers only if they are able to use the product. However, it is only social capital that can enhance the brand value of an organization at its initiation period. The business environments in the commercial marketplaces in the current era are highly competitive. In this situation, social capital acts as a core competence and helps a business to start-up efficiently. It also helps these new firms in developing and enhancing their entrepreneurial skills in business (Block, 1982). Literature Review The social capital largely helps the growth of an organization since its inception. Today at the business start up stage, the social networks of the entrepreneurs are utilized. In the later stage, the concept of networking between the business promoters falls under the context of social capital. It is true that by using social capital, the new business organizations gather human and financial capital in their business. This helps the organizations to develop their business in the contemporary competitive marketplaces. It is thus believed that in the modern days, succ ess of business organizations can only be achieved through a quantifiable amount of social capital. Unlike the concept of human and financial capital, social capital is intangible in nature and hence, it is highly difficult to measure it. It is thus true that the recent scholars face difficulty to precisely measure the exact amount of social capital required for business development. In 2001, Cote and Healy had stated that social capital relates to the norms, network and values of a business organization. Measuring the value of social capital has been considered to be one of the most primary tasks of World Value Survey in 2001. Hjollund and Svendsen had stated that the primary well-being of a new venture can only be established by the use of social capital (Stryker, 1998). In the society, social capital not only helps in the formulation of new business firms, but also facilitates the job creation activities. Thus, many economists suggest that in the long run, social capital helps to reduce the amount of unemployment. This is because social capital aids the formation of new firms or business ventures in an economy, thereby raising the employment opportunities in the same. It should also be analyzed that the rate of economic growth in a nation depends on the rate of new business formations. Thus, indirectly social capital is the underlying driving force for economic progress in a nation. In the

The media in Pakistan Essay Example for Free

The media in Pakistan Essay From their independence, Pakistani people fed a surfeit of Islamic and state ideology, (anti India) via (restricted and tightly controlled) newspapers, radio and later state owned and ran TV, Pakistan Television (PTV) one and only channel broadcasting multi nature of TV content for 8 hours in a day, since its commencement. In the beginning of new millennium, General Pervez Musharraf’s government facilitated the national and international private TV channels through cable TV networks. Cable TV networks spread all over the country in a flash from big cities to smaller towns and remote villages because of cheap monthly charges and zero installation expense, The private TV media revolution was welcomed by ordinary people and this phenomena is now integral part of their life and culture, In every home, shop, or at Tea stall there is cable TV network connection as in Kellner’s words We are immersed from cradle to grave in a media and consumer society, Many of the private channels are owned by newspaper companies and business corporations. So they were/are truly commercial entity and therefore can always be expected to cater, first and foremost, to its profit-making needs. According to Kellner, Media culture is industrial culture, organized on the model of mass production and is produced for a mass audience according to types (genres), following conventional formulas, codes, and rules. It is thus a form of commercial culture and its products are commodities that attempt to attract private profit produced by giant corporations interested in the accumulation of capital. Most of the Pakistani private channels started as News channels (Breaking News craze) but later they established other channels along with news channels, broadcasting Current affairs, Music, Entertainment, Sports, Children programming, and Religious (own and overseas) contents 24 hour in a day with hundreds of advertisements (main resource to generate revenue). Above short introduction is about my essay which I am drawing on the basis of Douglas Kellner’s media spectacle theory (global culture is actually Media culture) Kellner wrote this book in American perspective but I will try to analyze and explain the Pakistani Media (TV, Film and advertisements) in the decade of 1980s and later. In the history of Pakistani media, significant events were/are connected with political situation in country. Four time army takeover of government, Military rulers took thirty years of the nation since 1947, ruling the country and media as well by mean of strong reflection of their policies at paper, speaker and screens. In 1977, The third and most prevailing military ruler, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, coup the democratic government of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, first Prime Minister of Pakistan after fall of East Pakistan (Bangladesh). PTV became propaganda machine for Zia ul Haq, his policies and personality dominated the whole era of TV in Pakistan, the footage of General Zia, saluting, reviewing parades, meeting foreign dignitaries, shaking hands with wounded soldiers. His disabled daughter, dressed in a military uniform of her own, never far from his side on stage, saluting her father like any good soldier. He filled the screen, he filled the country. He was larger than life, a figure somewhere halfway between president of Pakistan and a religious icon. Throughout 1980s he implemented the so called Islam, Islamic laws (Pakistani Paper and electronic media worked as his mouth piece) and for his long survival and to oppose Russian communism (not the Chinese) in the region with the help of Ronald Regan (1981 – 1989) as this decade was the end of cold war and beginning of the proxy war between US and formerly Russian federation in Afghanistan fought by (Mujahidin) Soldiers of God (stated by former US deputy defense chief Zbigniew Brzezinski ), the supportive role Zia played for the anti-Soviet mujahidin in Afghanistan continuous and free supply of Arms and ammunition to Mujahidin and to war lords, lose control over north-western boarders had been rewarded as free availability of Narcotics and weapons in Pakistani society. The martial law of Zia-ul-Haq and the culture of Kalashnikov, heroin and violent religiosity struck a crushing blow to the film industry and then films multiplied this phenomena’s and gradually the culture changed completely and a new genre of cinema grew where glamorization of violence and brutality in extracting vengeance were common subjects of film making. Wahshee Gujjar, Maula Jat and Jat da kharaak are some of the films from that period which effectively captured the subject. Film â€Å"Maula Jutt† is symbolic representation of Hero in Pakistani films. Maula Jatt is arguably the most iconic, not to mention violent, character in Pakistani cinema. While the character of Maula Jatt appeared in three cult films—Washi Jatt, Maula Jatt and Maula Jatt in London—in which he killed his opponents with impunity, his blood drenched exploits inspired a highly lucrative genre of films centered upon bloody rivalries between Jatts (biggest population of Punjab) in a seemingly lawless Punjab (most populated province of Pakistan). Films from that era were based on representation of Islam, identities (caste, religious, and national), especially under the Zia ul Haq regime, to regulate or ‘Islamize’ the film industry. Islamic Ordinances, sharia laws and punishment system especially Hudod ordinance (limit, or restriction) is the word often used in Islamic social and legal literature for the bounds of acceptable behavior) were introduced, implemented and practiced by newly made Sharia courts. The Hudod ordinance has/had strong influence on Pakistani society and contents of all media outlets. Film censor board was already working in the country but after General Zia ul Haq TV censorship had been implemented, Female News casters, drama actresses, and even girls like 12 year old on TV put the Hijab to cover the head, their dressing code was changed, drama writing style, stories and subjects are confined in the container of General Zia’s policy. Stories from Islamic history were dramatized and many of the Silver screen films made on ideology of Islam and anti-India. The term (Afghani and Kashmiri mujahidin) caught on and eventually entered the mainstream media. Zia ul Haq’s name and his policies will be remember by succeeding generations, he completely changed the Pakistan, Muslim culture in sub-continent and its social fabric, stated by famous TV actress of that time Mehtaab Akbar Rashidi, she shared her experiences during Zia’s era and how she was barred from hosting two shows ‘Farozan’ and ‘Apni Baat’ (talk shows on social issues) just because she refused to cover her head. â€Å"Through the media, Zia wanted to portray his personally idealized image of Pakistani women and how they should look,† she said. She did not appear on TV for the next eight years of Zia’s rule. Male artists were newer allowed to touch female actresses, dialogues, and impressions were be in kind of limits which approved by the censor board or committees, almost all leading Pakistani TV actors had ‘beards: â€Å"Talat Hussain, Rahat Kazmi, Shafi Muhammad, all had beards. â€Å"It was a fashion of that time expressing creativity and manhood† First time in the history of Pakistani TV, images and videos ofwomen and men punished durray or korray for breaking of hudod the people broadcasted nation wide in news Islamic religious scholars were often seen in TV talk shows and in solo shows describing religion, religious issues discussing moral values of Muslims. Islamic scholars like Moulana Asrar ahmed, Tahir ul Qadri, kausar Niazi.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) Research Validity

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) Research Validity Internal, External and Construct Validity Introduction Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) has been utilized with success in students with or without learning disabilities and it is mainly attributed due to increased time concentrated on reading materials or exercises on the computer. It offers productive practice and time management and is an effective tool to used as a supplement to providing drills (Williams, Wright, Callaghan, Coughlan, 2002). Some of the advantages that the CAI provides inside the classroom include one-on-one exercise with minimal supervisory time involving the teacher. In many cases, instant feedback to students allows mistakes to be rectified immediately. Certain programs offer features that monitor speed and accuracy of answers and the regularity of instruction for subject mastery (Wong, 2008). Internal Validity Threats In a research study done by Coleman-Martin, Heller, Cihak, Irvine (2005), a slower acquisition rate score was recorded when a different Windows version (i.e., XP versus Windows 98) was used during one of the test sessions. The variation of the platform caused the PowerPoint slide presentation to run slower than the prior sessions that resulted to disrupting its timing and consistency. Computer skills, familiarity with the software programs, and prior knowledge in the question format (i.e., multiple choice) are factors to consider that might have influence the rate at which the students learned words identification (Coleman-Martin, et al., 2005, p. 90). Similarly, according to research study conducted by Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., Hamlet, C., Powell, S., Capizzi, A., Seethaler, P. (2006) on the effects of CAI on number combination skill in at-risk first graders, their procedures did not take into consideration the keyboarding skills of at-risk first graders and the possibility that errors related to the learners typing skills reduced the effectiveness of the CAI. External Threats to Validity According to Savage, R., Deault, L., Abrami, P., Hipps, G. (2009), one limitation found on their research regarding a randomized controlled trial study of the ABRACADABRA reading intervention was that students with inferior literacy and associated skills during pretest were more likely not to show up for testing at follow-up. The researchers believed that this is an issue of experimental mortality insinuating that the postponement of posttest outcomes are almost certainly less generalizable to typical reader samples than the more immediate posttest statistics ( Savage, et al., 2009, p. 602). Threats to Construct Validity Bannert (2000) and Van Gog (2005) research study suggested that giving the students control over portions of their instruction allow them to better negotiate the cognitive challenges placed on them as students. They further noted that learner-control participants performed better on a test of transfer than the participants who received no control. Van Gog (2005) hypothesized that over time, improved performance would be visible during training situations along with the capability of the learner to assess and rectify future problematic situations when learners are progressively awarded with more control over their instruction as their skill level intensified. In contrast, Eom and Reiser (2000) revealed that junior high students who were given the opportunity to control their instruction displayed considerably worse performance than those who were not allowed to control their instruction. The same results were reported by several researchers (Farrell and Moore, 2000 and Swaak and de Jong, 2001) who stated that providing students control over their instruction concludes in trivial or insignificant advancement. It may be a case of poor construct definition where a construct may have been mislabeled or defined at a wrong level either too general or too specific. In this case, it is possible that establishing the types of control given to the students will be a crucial factor. Impact of Validity Issues Several validity issues could affect the envisioned research regarding the effectiveness of the type of CAI programs that are currently used as a remediation tool for at-risk students. One limitation is the inclination for technology difficulties because technology can be unpredictable. In accomplishing particular learning objectives, the learning tool such as the software programs used in conjunction with the CAI should be developmentally appropriate. References Bannert, M. (2002). Managing cognitive load recent trends in cognitive load theory. Learning and Instruction, 12, 139-146. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Creswell, J. (2009). Research design (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Coleman-Martin, M., Heller, K., Cihak, D., Irvine, K. (2005). Using computer-assisted instruction and the nonverbal reading approach to teach word identification. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(2), 80-90. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from EBSCO Host database. Cozby, P. (2009). Methods in behavioral research (10th ed.) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Eom, W. Reiser, R. (2000). The effects of self-regulation and instructional control on performance and motivation in computer-based instruction. International Journal of Instructional Media, 27(3), 247-260. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Farrell, I. Moore, D. (2000). The effect of navigation tools on learners achievement and attitude in a hypermedia environment. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 29 (2), 169-181. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., Hamlet, C., Powell, S., Capizzi, A, Seethaler, P. (2006). The effects of computer-assisted instruction on number combination skill in at-risk first graders, 39(5), 467-475. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Savage, R., Deault, L., Abrami, P., Hipps, G. (2009). A randomized controlled trial study of the ABRACADABRA reading intervention program in grade 1, Journal of Educational Psychology. 101(3), 590-604. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Swaak, J. de Jong, T. (2001). Learners vs. system control in using online support for simulation-based discovery learning. Learning Environment Research, 4, 217-241. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Trochim, W., Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Van Gog, T. Ericsson, K. Rikers, R., Paas, F. (2005). Instructional design for advanced learners: Establishing connections between the theoretical framework of cognitive load and deliberate practice. Educational Technology Research and Design, 53(3), 73-81. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Williams, C., Wright, B. Callaghan, G., Coughlan, B. (2002). Do children with autism learn to read more readily by computer-assisted instruction or traditional book method? A pilot study. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 6, 71-91.Retrieved February 16, 2010, from EBSCOHost database. Wong, B. (1991). Learning about learning disabilities. New York: Academic Press.

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery

Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Role of Spirituality in Substance Abuse and Recovery Introduction Separation of drug addicts from these substances during treatment has several implications on the general wellbeing of the same. It is because addicts dependence on the drugs is very high and in most instances, they can hardly function without the influence of drugs. However, in order to function executively, independence from drugs and alcohol is of essence. The separation process is characterized by shame, rage, fear and many other factors that undermine the total recovery of the addicts. Studies conducted show that the process of mourning is fundamental because it enhances the release of the negative feelings that inhibit recovery. Indeed, mourning according to psychoanalysts enables the addicts to let go of the destructive relationships that they have with the drugs and establish constructive and productive viable relationships with human beings. In order to achieve this, it has been identified that spirituality plays a very fundamental role. This concept means different things to different people but essentially, it has been contended that the influence of the Supreme Being enhances change in character. At this point in time, it is worth noting that change forms the background of the recovery process. Specifically, spirituality helps in the construction and reconstruction of personal narratives in the contexts of the purpose and meaning of the addicts life. It is in this consideration that this literature review provides an in depth analysis of the role of spirituality in substance abuse and the recovery of drug addicts. To enhance effective coherence of in the review, it is organized in subsections that exhaustively evaluate particularistic aspects of the theoretical construct of the subject under review, psychodynamic perspectives on addiction, psychodynamic perspectives on mourning, psychodynamic perspectives on rage, the concept of spirituality and its role in the recovery process, how spirituality can be employed in the construction of narratives, the application of the multiple code theory on mourning and the impact of rage and shame on the mourning process and ultimate recovery of the addicts. General theory of affect Object relations theory Over time, the objects relations theory has gained popularity because of the fact that its application plays a fundamental role in psychoanalysis. The theory explicitly explores the active course of mind development as an individual grows and the influence of the different real others that are found in that particular environment (Masterson, 1998). The term object in this regard refers to the physical others as well as the others that are imagined. All these are found in a persons holistic environment and influence growth in different ways. Ogden (1990) indicates that an individuals rapports with the various objects are often initiated during the childhood interactions that an infant has with a care giver, the mother or any other individual that the infant shares a close relation with. Studies conducted in this regard show that these early interactions can be modified and improved through time due to the different experiences that an individual goes through (Grostein (1981). However, despite the modification, Klein (1962) affirms that the early interactions have a permanent effect on a persons psychological wellbeing. The infant usually interacts with and understands different objects differently in accordance with their functions and implications in its life. These are referred to by Ogden (1990) as part or whole objects. For example, he explains that the breast that provides milk and satisfies the infant when it is hungry is perceived as the good breast by the infant. However, one that does not contain milk and is of little help to the infant when it is hungry assumes a bad breast relationship. During this time, the infant is often subjective and sensitive to the different implications of the objects in its life. Moreover, it is from these relationships that the infant starts to internalize certain objects and develops a sense of imagination. As such it can fantasize about certain objects and develop an image of the same in the mind. According to Stephen (1997), these internal objects may be a direct representation of the real external ones, or may not. The presence of an ideal aiding environmen t results into the ultimate transformation of the part objects in to whole. To this end, the infant can then be able to accept the ambiguity and complexity of the whole objects (Gunstrip, 1995). For example, the infant will be in position to realize that both the bad and good breasts are part of the mother. Fairbairns contributes to this subject and contends that the parents are the first individuals that the infant develops a relationship with because of the personal relationship that the infant shares with them (Fairbairn, 1952). The various interactions with the parents lead to the development of a special bond which further strengthens the attachment between the parents and the infant. According to Fairbairn, the future emotional experiences of the child are highly influenced by the emotional relationship that the child enjoys with the parents during infancy. To this end, he asserts that the libidinal objects that the child develops at infancy determine later relationships with others. With regard to the relationship with the internal objects, Fairbairn asserts that effective parenting results in to the development of holistic individuals that can maintain a good relationship with real others through interactions. On the other hand, defective parenting produces children whose interactions with real individuals are relatively superficial and therefore defective. In this respect, instead of valuing actual relationships with real people, these children fantasize private relationships with the internal objects and in most instances live in their imagined world. In order to nurture socially acceptable individuals, it is important that parents provide a good environment for holistic growth during infancy. Fairbairn (1952) also argues that in cases where the parents are missing, the infants mind internalizes the unresponsive (bad) aspects of its parents and visualizes the aspects as forming part of it due to the fact that the aspects are not actually available. He refers to this as the splitting ego effect. For instance, in cases where the mother of the infant is stressed but renounces this state, the child identifies with this state because s/he may be unable to establish a complete relationship with the mother during this period. As a result, the infant becomes stressed, not because of any external influence, but because of the fact that it can not effectively relate with the mother and the mother has denied the condition. In his study, Winnicott shows that a child develops from an integrated condition to a distinct status from which s/he can be able to identify and relate with the objective world (Roadman, 2003). He asserts that the early environment, possibly provided by the mother provides an important basement upon which the future of the child is anchored. However, in order to attain a satisfactory level of development that is essential for survival, Winnicot argues that the child should be able to perceive the mother as neither a good nor bad object but rather an independent and complex individual who lives an independent life. This then helps the child to understand and acknowledge the contributions of the mother in his or her life. Generally, the propositions of Winnicott presented through his exploration of the development process create a good enough mother who is characterized by patience and tolerance. Thus in order to understand the patients well during therapy, he suggests that the medica l practitioners should assume the ideal qualities of good enough mother and provide the best environment for the patient t recuperate. The drive theory This theory is based on the conception that human beings are born with certain structural expectations. Studies show that failure to fulfill these expectations results in to a state of anxiety which is basically destructive. Ogden (2005) explains that it is because anxiety leads to tensions that have adverse effects on the emotional wellbeing of human beings. However, when the expectations are met, the drive is then reduced and the being assumes a stable condition characterized by calm and relaxation. Proponents of this theory assert that drive often increases with time (Grostein, 1981). With regard to psychoanalysis, the theoretical construct of drives is perceived to encompass different motivations and instincts which have distinct objects. Classic examples in this regard involve the drive in the direction or life (productivity and construction) and death (destruction). To this end, it is increasingly important that the therapists understand and appreciate the drives of their patients in order to derive the best approaches that they can utilize for effective recovery. For instance, by identifying the gaps and weaknesses in the provision of the expectations, timely interventions can be undertaken to avoid adverse effects. The Inter-subjective theory of affect This theory presumes than in order to address problems in an effective manner, there is need for an agreement between the differing parties (Carveth, 1994). A state of inter-subjectivity according to this theory is reached when the two or more differing parties agree on the same definition of a given condition even when they have different perceptions of the conflicting issue. Furthermore, the theory shows that inter-subjectivity plays a vital role in influencing our various ideas and relationships. To this end Atwood and Stolorow (1993) indicate that inter-subjectivity promotes peaceful conditions that are fundamental for human co-existence. Of particular importance according to them is the role of language in enhancing the state of inter-subjectivity. They assert that language enhances effective communication that enables the individuals to express themselves with ease and therefore reach a consensus quickly. According to this theory it is perceived public rather than private and i s instrumental in initiating social relationships. In light of modern psycho analysis, a study conducted by Carveth (1994) affirms that in order to attain inter subjectivity and enjoy its implications, it is important to forego the isolation that characterizes certain individuals. The myth of isolation to this end indicates that some individuals virtually exist on their own, independent of the world and other individuals. As such, they become vulnerable to the different forces and challenges that life presents. This vulnerability then culminates in to conditions of anxiety and anguish that in some instances becomes unbearable. It should be acknowledged that the state of anxiety highly inhibits effective emotional functioning of an individual. To this effect, therapists recommend that patients are required to open up and involve third parties in making important decisions. In addition, when faced with any emotional and psychological problem, the patients should seek early interventions that can be readily provided by the persons that they are close to. This is instrumental in regulating the severity of the effect of mental problems to their wellbeing (Carveth, 1994). Basically, this theory shows that establishment of viable real social relationships go a long way in avoiding psychological problems. It is because they give the patients a chance for relief during the early stages of their psychological anguish and relatively prevent situations of psychological breakdown and the associated mental difficulties. The affect theory Theorists in this regard contend that an affect refers to a sentiment or a feeling that is subjectively generated and is independent of any external influence. The affect theory is aimed at an organization of different affects in to distinct classes and provides a connection of each to a typical response. Often, the affect is internally felt but manifested externally through various expressions. Tomkins (1991) shows that all the affects can be easily recognized through different facial expressions that stem from a stimulus. For instance, the affect of pain or discontent can be easily identified through the act of frowning. On the other hand, the affect of happiness is revealed through smiling. The nine affects as identified by this theory include joy, excitement, rage, disgust, fear, distress, dissmell, humiliation and surprise (Tomkins, 1991). With regard to modern psychoanalysis, the positive affects are always prescribed to the patients as opposed to the negative affects that are discouraged. During therapy, Kelly (1996) asserts that affects should be properly utilized to give the intended effect. Furthermore, it is argued that affects play a vital role in initiating and maintaining intimate relations that are fundamental in psychotherapy and mental health on the whole. It is because they emphasize positive relationships towards a particular goal and discourage the negative relationships. The employment of affects is also fundamental due to the fact that they encourage the members that are seeking mental health and recovery to express affects to each other in order to identify the extent of the progress and make prescriptions accordingly (Tomkins, 1991). In addition affects can be very important in describing to the mental health patients the goals and objectives that are supposed to be achieved in the course of therapy. These are employed during narrative of different events that aid in therapy. Setting of goals provides an impetus fro the patients to employ individual effort and achieve the expected results within the set timeframe. Tomkins (1991) shows that not only does this help the patients to save time and resources that are used in therapy, but it also improves their productivity. Furthermore, the affects are also associated with Christianity. To this effect, it can not be disputed that Christianity plays an important role in regulating feelings of violence, anger and suffering. On the contrary, it encourages feelings of love, peace and enjoyment. By optimizing the use of affects, therapists encourage the patients to embrace religion and spirituality. Studies conducted after its inception affirms that the theory plays a vital role in enhancing the process of therapy and positive results have been attained from its usability. Of particular reference is the employment of spiritual values and virtues during recovery. Kelly (1996) indicates that these values provide a framework for sustainable recovery. Psychodynamic perspective on addiction This perspective was initiated by Dr, Freud and it has been in use for almost a full century now (Mitchel Black, 1995). Its contention is based on the presumption that there exist some complexities with regard to the extensive and expansive world of behavior. To this end, it is assumed that the unconscious forces that are found within the human being are key influences of why we behave the way we do and why we involve ourselves in addictive behavior. In this respect, Isaac (1958) shows that through the various modes of interpretation of the traumatic experiences that children often experience and the difficulties that they face during development, in future; they derive different meanings and relations with particular events, specific individuals and certain activities. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that the severe internal conflicts often originate from a persons childhood and if interventions are not made in a timely manner, studies show that this can result into ment al illness at later stages of the childs life. According to Martin and Marcel (2008), this situation can happen because of the fact that these childhood conflicts have the ability to inhibit the effective growth and maturity of three structures which make up the human psyche. In their study, they show that these encompass the ID that initiates the sexual and force related drives, the ego that is found in the brain and provides reference between reality and unconsciousness and the super ego which provides control over the stimuli of the Id and symbolizes ethical ideals. Freud suggests that their recovery from this trap is determined by the extent of their understanding, their disentangling and their exposition of these instinctive forces, convictions and meanings (Priestly et al., 1998). Over time, this perception has undergone various changes that incline the key concepts to special adaptation, efforts to provide self medication for painful and unbearable emotions, a compulsive behavior and need for this self medication and an ul timate reflection of an abnormality in self organization. The mental psychologists strongly believe that various mental issues result from the psychodynamic conflicts that can not be effectively addressed using the defense mechanism. In their study, Lende and Smith (2002) argue that often, employment of defense mechanisms as a response to the different conflicts provides a temporal internal satisfaction. However, Ornsten (2008) indicates that at the levels of the super ego and the id, this approach is ineffective and it is largely blamed for adoption of maladaptive behavior, which in most instances is addictive. Likewise, other theorists have made enormous contributions to this field using more specific aspects of addictions. To this end, the psycho analytic contributions made by Glover with regard to drug addiction can be considered very invaluable on this body of knowledge. Other compulsive behaviors explored by this author include the prostitution and sadism. Specifically, he classified the different mental disorders and explored the mind development process and its implications on addiction and other compulsive and persistent behaviors (Martin Marcel, 2008). In his study, Sando Rado coined the word compulsion that is presently used to describe addictive behavior. According to him the addicts experienced pleasurable moments by use of specific pleasure centers found in the addicts brain that are sexual in nature (Priestly et al., 1998). From these reviews, the word compulsion has been widely used in the addiction studies. Additionally, he suggested that psychopathology was likely to be a cause of addiction rather than its preconception as a result of addiction. Simmel in his study made so many contributions to the field of psychoanalysis and addictions. He pointed out that gambling is indeed an addiction because according to him, it is virtually an expression pleasure although it is also characterized by tension and fear (Lende Smith, 2002). During adulthood, this is used to restrict feelings of guilt and anger. Priestly et al. (1998) argues that it is related to the failure to comprehend the meaning of socialization. According to Simmel, unlike winnings that can be really ecstatic, loosing implies restriction of parental affection. Leon Wumser is yet another psychoanalytic who made significant contribution to the field of addiction. He particularly explored drug addiction and contented that this is influenced by intense inner conflicts of a being, family diseases and disturbances that are faced in the course of development. He presumes that addiction to drugs occurs because usually, the user adopts them as a defense mechanism against what he terms as undesirable internal and external reality. In his study, he also explores the relationship between addiction and phobia and shows that the two, despite being compulsive, are parallel to each other. He also points out that according to his field research, most of the drug addicts were maltreated when still young (Martin Marcel, 2008). They then suppressed these feelings at that particular time and find it difficult to face the feelings during later stages of their lives. This makes them to assume addiction as a temporal comfort zone for them, away from the fears of the urge to experience the painful childhood feelings. Henry Krystal then explored the psychoanalysis of alcohol addiction with regard to the relationship of the addict and the object. To this end, he indicates that often, the drug addict wishes to reconnect with an ideal object and dreads it at the same time (Ornsten, 2008). As a result, he assumes fantasy and drama and can not be separated from the addictive substance. Thus particular functions that are meant for perpetuating nurturance are inhibited and instead reserved in order to act as a representative of the object. This knowledge shows that the role of therapy in this is to enable the patient to expand the conscious of self recognition to his entire self. According to Kystal, this frees him from the urge to use the drug which then enables the patient to have access to the parts and functions that were initially isolated. Khantzian also explored the concepts of self, ego and opiate addiction and proposed that addictions often occur because the addict fails to asses his or her self and the different situations that s/he experiences. As such, the addict fails to caution and protect the self against the dangers by involving in dangerous activities. It is because of the fact that initially, he or she failed to differentiate between the destructive and constructive activities ad make efforts to putting place measures. To this end, he argues that the therapy should aim at effectively addressing the hidden psychopathology and other behavioral defects. In order to achieve this, Khantian suggests that the addict should gain full control over his or her feelings and destructive behavior. It is because the ability to effectively address this lies in the inner self of the patient. To this end, it can be argued that despite the fact that the therapists help enhances recovery; the patient is the one to make the ult imate choice regarding the recovery from addiction. Greenspan then develops a comprehensive model that fuses the developmental process and substance abuse in an effort to understand how each affects the other (Priestly, et al., 1998). In his study, he explores the different patterns of substance abuse and resultant addictions. He further argues that in order for the treatment to yield satisfactory results, it is important to understand the patterns and internalize the relationship between the inner and outer self of the addict and how the same contribute to the state of addiction. According to him, this is essential due to the fact that in most instances, addicts pretend and they may quit treatment before their internal problems are fully addressed. Bernard Brickman argues that the traditional approaches to psychoanalysis did not effectively affect addictions. He supported this presumption using different studies and researches. He challenged the basic psychoanalysis assumptions with regard to psychoanalytic pathology (Lende Smith, 2002). It is in this consideration that he proposed a holistic approach that is supported by various studies undertaken in other related disciplines like genetics and physiology amongst others. In general he recommended that abstinence should be the first intervention and should be taken during the early stages of addiction. According to him, this is a requirement for satisfactory analytic therapy. Additionally, he emphasizes that mutual help groups like alcohol anonymous play a critical role in the recovery of addicts. Finally, Norman Zinberg contributes to this body of knowledge by highlighting that the physical and social environment of the addict also contributes in different ways to these conditions. His theory starts by acknowledging the fact that the attitude and overall personality of the user play primary roles in contributing to the condition. These propositions are very important during therapy in that the conditions in the hospital greatly differ from the home environment. According to him, these have different implications on the process of recovery. Generally, he contends that social factors including the social construct of the addictive practice contributes to different patterns regarding addiction. For instance, he indicates that in most societies, alcohol is associated with feasting and parties. To this end, frequent feasts and parties are likely to contribute to alcohol abuse. Overall, he points out that therapy should adopt a multidimensional approach in order to realize optimal results (Martin Marcel, 2008). He argues that despite the fact that behavioral change and drug administration play a vital role in the recovery process, external and independent aspects of the social and physical environment should also be given equal consideration. The above reviews provide important insights about the psychological perception of addiction. To this effect, it can be ascertained that addiction is a multifaceted aspect and effective psychoanalysis is essential if effective treatment is to be given. Therapeutic efforts should also be complex in order to address all the aspects that impact upon the recovery process. Additionally, it is increasingly important for the psychological therapists to understand and appreciate the differing needs and requirements of their patients in order to provide customized services. Considering the fact that the patients past has various implications on his or her present, practitioners should start by understanding the patients past events and experiences. This forms the basement upon which successful psychotherapy is derived. In addition, it should also be appreciated that the present society and life is characterized by stressful conditions and other forms of depressive events. It is in this consideration that this Ornsten (2008) suggests that the modern psychoanalysis should also put in to consideration the modern factors that lead to addictions. It is important that root causes of these factors that include economic, social and psychological difficulties are addressed in a timely and effective manner. This calls for integrated effort from all major stakeholders. Psychodynamic perspectives of mourning Mourning is a mental condition that is characterized by various processes and is triggered by a loss of an object that the individual has a great attachment to (Lerner, 1990). This takes some certain period of time that is depended upon the individuals capability to overcome it. The individual goes through various stages and when the process is over, s/he is completely separated from the lost object. The process is characterized by intense pain and denial of the reality but gradually, the individual attains a level of acceptance. Eventually, Field shows that the person succumbs to the changes, accepts the loss and initiates new relationships with other objects (1999). The grief that occurs as a result of mourning has various emotional and psychological implications to the person that is mourning. Essentially, the different stages of the mourning process that contribute significantly to the theoretical framework of mourning were discussed in detail by Bowlby. These were based upon the observations made to the infants when the mothers presence was missing. The first phase according to this study includes numbing and is often characterized by painful feelings of distress (Berry, 2008). The feelings if not controlled may result in to psychological or mental breakdown. The individual may engage in certain activities that are physical in nature in an effort to express these feelings. Common activities include screaming, wailing and crying amongst others. After this, the person that is mourning goes into a stage of yearning and looking for the missing individuals or objects. This happens because of the feelings of denial due to the fact that the loss could have been unexpected. The stage is still characterized by feelings of sadness and refusal of the loss. Usually, Lerner (1990) indicates that the individuals at this stage still hope that the lost object will at some time return to them. During this stage, the person is still susceptible to the external information about the lost object. The third phase is then characterized by despair and lack of organization. This happens because of the inability of the lost object or person to return. It indicates the beginning of hopelessness and acceptance (Field, 1990). The fact that the lost object is not likely to return to the person makes the person confused and disorganized in various ways. In addition, the individuals affirmation that he relationship shared with the lost person is also lost contributes to the disorganization. Finally, the stage of increased or reduced reorganizations follows. This according to Bowlby is depended on the persons ability to appreciate the loss incurred. According to him, if the person fails to fully acknowledge the loss, s/he is unlikely to be organized during this stage. On the contrary, persons that perceive the loss as positive and part of the change process are often organized during this stage. According to Bowlby, the time taken during the whole process and the sequence of the phases differ considerably from one individual to another. It is because various individuals posses different capabilities to deal with the loss and overcome it accordingly. In addition, the resources available during the mourning process also influence the period of time that an individual takes during mourning. In this respect, Berry (2008) argues that availability of resources such as therapy hastens the mourning process. Generally, the mourners movement through the process as described by Bowlby is oscillatory- forward and backward movement. This study was based upon the principles of psychodynamic analysis that highly utilizes the role of emotion in the recovery of mental health. To this end, Freud argued that grief was important because of the fact that it enabled the person mourning to dispel painful feelings and detach from the given loss. This is important because the person then has a chance to realize his or her potential with regard to psychological resources. To this end, it is suggested that longer periods of mourning are relatively beneficial to the emotional wellbeing of the individuals (Lerner, 1990). However, this contention has faced various changes with Field (1999) arguing that the propositions are not backed with empirical data. Field researches conducted by various psychologists in this regard show that the period of mourning has limited influence on the psychological wellbeing of different persons. However, modern approach to the process of mourning appreciates the role of the childs environment. Additionally, the subjective reaction of the child to the process and the role of the third parties in enabling the child overcome the same are also acknowledged. While addressing the attachment theory, Boylby asserts that attachment as part of behavior mechanism that is fundamental for survival. Furthermore, with regard to grief and mourning, he indicates that these are disruptions that highly compromise the emotional stability of individuals. In addition, Field (1999) agues that disruptions in the relationships always occur due to insecurity as a result of lack of cooperation from parents. These complexities result in to depression and stress because of the feeling of failure experienced by the child. Further, the feelings are attributed to limited support from individuals who are supposed to offer the same. Freud also did an extensive study regarding the psychodynamic aspects of mourning and ascertained that this state implied a real loss of person. He asserted that the process of mourning is part of melancholia and is pathological in nature. He showed that the feelings of accusations that are experienced during mourning are often directed towards the mourner, despite the fact that they are meant to be directed towards the lost person. To illustrate this, he gives the example of a loyal wife who